Państwo i Społeczeństwo / State and Society

Since its establishment in 2001, “Państwo i Społeczeństwo / State and Society” has provided a space for academic reflection on the functioning of institutions, societies, public systems, and the changing conditions of contemporary life. Over the years, the journal has brought together authors representing different disciplines, research traditions, and methodological approaches. This interdisciplinary identity remains one of its most important strengths. At the same time, academic publishing has changed substantially. Today, a scholarly journal is expected not only to publish valuable research, but also to ensure transparent editorial procedures, reliable peer review, high-quality metadata, open access to content, ethical clarity, international discoverability, and a clear profile that allows authors and readers to understand its scientific mission. [...]

During the Gothic period, structural experiments aimed at facilitating the construction of high naves by weakening the horizontal pressure of the vaults were diverse. External flying buttresses were typically used, but around 1300, in the monumental Cistercian churches in Salem and Sedlec, massive buttresses were added to the inter-nave pillars, rising higher to support the external walls of the clerestory. In the scholarly literature on Gothic basilicas in Kraków, the greatest amount of attention has been paid to the pillar-and-buttress construction system used in Wawel Cathedral after 1320. This system proved so effective that it was repeated in subsequent churches in the city, built in the second half of the 14^th and 15^th centuries. However, after the earthquakes of 1442 and 1443, when the vaults in two chancels collapsed and the cathedral nave wall buckled, the buttresses above the side aisles in the yet-to-be-completed naves of Kazimierz’s basilicas were widened on massive corbels. In this way, by adding weight to the wall structure, the resultant of the vertical and horizontal forces pushing the vaults apart ensured structural stability. This construction technique was unprecedented in Gothic architecture in Poland. It had not been noticed and described in previous architectural and conservation studies. Unfortunately, there are no written sources that would allow us to identify the workshop that introduced this solution. Just as the architectural forms of the Gothic basilicas in Krakow and Kazimierz combine patterns from many European artistic circles, their structure is also the result of the diverse construction experiences of Central European building culture in the late Middle Ages.

In office buildings, technology is often used as a tool for ensuring comfort by isolating interiors from the influences of nature and creating an artificial indoor environment. The relationship with nature is confrontational in character. The aim of this article is to present an alternative approach to the development of office architecture – one in which technology does not serve to subjugate nature, but rather supports effective cooperation between architecture and nature. This study proceeds from a review of the literature and selected examples of office buildings exhibiting such forms of cooperation, completed in Europe in the second and third decades of the 21st century.

The first part of the article presents a brief outline of the historical development of office buildings, explaining the origins of the iconic office tower as a closed system, i.e. a sealed form with glass curtain walls and an artificial indoor climate created by mechanical devices. Attention is drawn to the image-related role of advanced technology, which expresses the prestige and progressiveness of organizations. The following section presents critical attitudes towards the idea of the closed system as well as alternative movements. Four case studies of office buildings exhibiting bioclimatic and low-tech architectural features are analyzed and presented. The synthesis of the results is presented as a comparison of solutions based on cooperation with nature (passive) and technologically advanced solutions.

On the basis of these examples, it can be concluded that the role of technology is being redefined. The concept of technical minimalism is emerging. Advanced technology is present but discreet, supporting solutions based on natural phenomena through computer analyses and simulations at the design stage, as well as monitoring and assisting systems based on these phenomena through intelligent, integrated control during the operational phase. Renewable energy installations are also used. However, the use of low-tech solutions plays an image-building role, emphasizing the pro-environmental stance of building owners and tenants.

Considering the scale of the projects presented and the involvement of leading European architectural practices in their design, it may be concluded that they represent not a niche trend, but a significant development in the evolution of contemporary office buildings.

The memory of World War II is cultivated in Poland with exceptional intensity and emotional charge. This is evidenced, among other things, by the noticeable investment boom in commemorative structures and spaces,  such as monuments, entire monumental complexes, and memorial museums, that has been observed over the past three decades. Commemorative architecture in Poland increasingly uses materials as tools for constructing narratives about the past.

This article presents an analysis of selected projects created after 2000. The aim of the study is to develop a synthetic interpretative model demonstrating the relationships between the materials used and their role in shaping the narrative of memorial spaces by assigning them specific symbolic meanings, with particular emphasis on their impact on the user’s sensory and emotional perception. A qualitative case study was used, encompassing selected implementations of World War II memorial architecture created in Poland after 2000. The study considered criteria such as the method of displaying materials, the relationship of the materials to the spatial composition, the potential symbolic meanings attributed to these solutions, and their sensory impact on the viewer. The analysis concludes with a table – the Interpretive Model of the Relationship Material – Meaning – Sensory. The model serves as a bridge between the semiotics (meaning) and the phenomenology (sensory experience) of memorial architecture in the context of the narrativity of the materials used, which can be the basis for further empirical research.

This study examines social spaces in small Cycladic towns as an urban and architectural response to climatic conditions. The study focuses on three case studies: Chora (Folegandros island), Plaka (Milos Island) and Chorio (Kimolos island). The study adopts a qualitative comparative approach based on methodological triangulation, combining urban morphological analysis, patterns of spatial use and qualitative assessment of local microclimatic conditions. The aim of the study is to examine how urban morphology and local microclimatic conditions jointly influence the environmental performance and everyday use of social spaces in traditional Cycladic settlements. The findings suggest that differences in urban structure are associated with distinct microclimatic conditions, which in turn correspond to different temporal and spatial patterns of social activity. Semi-public micro-spaces, such as thresholds, steps and narrow passages, play a crucial role in enabling social interaction under high summer thermal stress conditions. The study demonstrates the relevance of traditional Cycladic settlements as references for contemporary climate-responsive architectural and urban design.

In Poland, population ageing has increased reliance on informal caregivers providing home-based care for geriatric patients. Long-term caregiving for functionally dependent older adults is associated with substantial burden and a need for social support. This study assessed the level and structure of social support among informal caregivers and identified associated factors.

A cross-sectional quantitative study included 102 informal caregivers providing home care to older adults. Data were collected using a questionnaire and the Berlin Social Support Scales (BSSS). Non-parametric statistical analyses were employed.

Caregivers provided intensive, long-term care mainly to functionally dependent patients. The highest BSSS scores were observed for perceived available support, whereas the lowest were noted for actually received support. Institutional support was rated very low, while support from family and friends was evaluated more positively. Caregivers who were in a relationship reported significantly higher overall BSSS scores than single participants. A greater number of tasks in which the care recipient was non-independent was significantly associated with lower overall BSSS scores.

Informal caregivers of geriatric patients in Poland experience considerable support-related burden, with institutional support remaining insufficient. Relationship status and the scope of patient dependence were associated with overall BSSS scores. Strengthening community-based, educational, and respite services may improve the support available to informal caregivers.

The use of non-nutritive sweeteners (NNS) as sugar replacements has become widespread as a strategy to
reduce caloric intake, thereby supporting weight management, and reduce sugar consumption in modern diets. However, their effectiveness in preventing weight gain in healthy adults remains controversial.

This review aims to evaluate the current evidence regarding the impact of NNS consumption on body weight regulation and metabolic health in healthy adults.

This narrative review synthesizes findings from randomized controlled trials, prospective cohort studies and mechanistic studies identified through a structured search of electronic databases. Emphasis was placed on studies assessing body weight, energy intake, metabolic responses, appetite regulation and gut microbiota.

Evidence from randomized controlled trials indicates that replacing sugars with NNS may reduce energy intake, body weight and body mass index in the short term. In contrast, long-term observational studies report associations between habitual NNS consumption and higher body weight, waist circumference and risk of cardiometabolic disorders, although causality remains uncertain. Mechanistic studies suggest that these effects may be mediated by context-dependent physiological responses, including variable incretin secretion, changes in reward-related responses and potential changes in gut microbiota composition.

NNS may be effective as a short-term strategy for reducing caloric intake; however, their long-term role in preventing weight gain in healthy individuals remains unclear. Further well-designed long-term studies are needed to clarify these relationships.

Laparoscopic abdominal surgery is currently a standard approach in many clinical settings, particularly in colorectal, gynecological, bariatric and general surgery. Although minimally invasive techniques reduce surgical trauma, they do not eliminate postoperative respiratory impairment, pain, temporary reductions in functional activity tolerance, or the risk of delayed functional recovery. These issues are particularly relevant in patients with reduced functional reserve, obesity, respiratory or cardiovascular disease, and other comorbidities. The aim of this paper is to present a model of collaboration between the surgeon and the physiotherapist in laparoscopic abdominal surgery within the framework of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS), including preoperative preparation, prehabilitation, early mobilization, stages of hospitalization and continuation of care after discharge.

This paper is a narrative review with elements of a conceptual model. It was based on an analysis of current ERAS guidelines and selected publications concerning postoperative pulmonary complications, prehabilitation, perioperative physiotherapy, patient education and early mobilization after abdominal surgery. The aim was not to systematically evaluate all rehabilitation interventions, but to organize evidence of the greatest practical relevance to collaboration between surgical and physiotherapy teams.

The model proposed in the paper involves the physiotherapist during preoperative preparation, who  performs a physiotherapy-specific functional assessment, identifies limitations in mobility and functional activity tolerance relevant to therapy planning, contributes information supporting interdisciplinary consideration of prehabilitation, and plans postoperative activity progression. Postoperatively, the model includes daily coordination of physiotherapy with the therapeutic team, assessment of functional readiness for mobilization and monitoring of tolerance to standing and walking, breathing pattern and cough effectiveness, as well as preparation for safe discharge and further rehabilitation. Selected safety variables are monitored only in connection with physiotherapy interventions and do not replace medical or nursing assessment of the patient’s clinical condition. Particular attention is given to diaphragmatic function, respiratory and movement pattern control, and a methodologically cautious approach to interventions targeting postoperative scar tissue, soft tissues and the abdominal wall.

The analysis indicates that integrated collaboration between surgeons and physiotherapists may provide a useful organizational and clinical framework supporting the implementation of local ERAS-based procedures, improving team communication and promoting a more consistent focus on patients’ functional goals. However, the  model should be regarded as a conceptual solution whose full clinical value requires further empirical verification in studies based on comparable protocols.

Total hip arthroplasty is one of the most commonly performed and most effective methods for treating advanced osteoarthritis and other conditions leading to significant functional impairment and chronic pain. This procedure enables pain reduction, improvement in joint function and increased patient independence in daily activities. Assessing the relationship between functional parameters and quality of life in patients who have had surgery is a crucial component in planning comprehensive rehabilitation care.

The study included 106 patients who had undergone total hip arthroplasty. A diagnostic survey method was employed using an original questionnaire that collected sociodemographic and clinical data. Functional capacity was assessed using the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC), while quality of life was evaluated using the World Health Organization Quality of Life-BREF (WHOQOL-BREF) questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization. The statistics were analyzed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient was used to assess relationships between variables.

Statistical analysis revealed significant negative correlations between WOMAC scores and quality of life scores across individual domains of the WHOQOL-BREF questionnaire. The strongest associations were observed in the physical domain of quality of life, indicating a significant relationship between the level of functional capacity and patients’ overall perception of health and everyday functioning. Higher quality of life scores were more frequently observed among women, younger patients, and individuals who received cementless prostheses. No statistically significant relationship was found between pain intensity and overall quality of life.

The findings indicate that functional capacity, particularly the level of physical performance and hip joint stiffness, is a key determinant of quality of life in patients who have undergone total hip arthroplasty. This highlights the importance of comprehensive rehabilitation aimed not only at pain reduction but also at improving functional performance, joint stability and the ability to perform daily activities. An integrated therapeutic approach may contribute to improved long-term treatment outcomes and increased patient satisfaction with the surgical procedure.

Gluten-related disorders (GRDs) require appropriate diagnosis and, in some cases, strict dietary treatment. At the same time, gluten-free products are increasingly chosen by people without a diagnosed disorder. This cross-sectional survey assessed dietary habits, lifestyle behaviours, familiarity with GRDs, sources of nutrition information, and reasons for choosing gluten-free products among 169 high school students from the Greater Poland voivodeship, Poland. The data were collected in 2018. Half of the participants reported physical activity at least three times per week (50.3%), 47.9% read food labels, 56.8% consumed two or fewer main meals per day, and 66.3% reported frequent snacking. Familiarity with the term “gluten” (49.1%) was more common than familiarity with “celiac disease” (39.0%). The Internet or social media was the most frequently indicated source of nutrition information (52.6%), while curiosity was the most common reason for choosing or trying gluten-free products (47.9%). The findings indicate gaps in knowledge of GRDs and support the need for age-appropriate nutrition education, including critical assessment of online information.

Workplace violence (WPV) against nursing staff is a significant and growing problem in healthcare systems, affecting both employee well-being and the quality of patient care. The aim of this study is to present the scale of the phenomenon, its forms, and its consequences for nurses. A review of the literature indicates that WPV is widespread and occurs in various forms, including verbal, psychological, and physical abuse. Verbal violence is the most common form involving insults, threats and humiliation. Research findings show that a substantial proportion of nurses experience WPV repeatedly, leading to negative health outcomes such as stress, burnout, anxiety and depressive symptoms. WPV also affects the quality of patient care by reducing concentration and increasing the risk of errors. Contributing factors include healthcare system overload, staff shortages and inadequate communication with patients. The need for preventive measures is emphasized, including training in managing aggressive behaviour, improving work organization and providing psychological support for staff. Effective prevention of WPV requires systemic solutions and increased awareness of the issue.

Organ transplantation is one of the most advanced life-saving medical procedures, yet public attitudes towards it remain diverse. The aim of this study was to analyze social attitudes towards organ donation in relation to cognitive, emotional and behavioural components, as well as empathy, altruism and sociodemographic variables.

 A diagnostic survey was conducted among 112 respondents. The study used an original author-developed questionnaire, as well as questionnaires assessing empathy and altruism.

The results revealed high acceptance of transplantation but a significant gap between declared attitudes and actual behaviours. The behavioural component was the strongest predictor of willingness to donate organs (r = 0.759), with empathy and altruism also playing important roles. The findings highlight the need for targeted educational and social interventions to increase actual donor behaviours.

Physical activity should be an integral part of a healthy lifestyle. Scientific research increasingly emphasizes the importance engaging in it regularly. Poor eating habits and low levels of physical activity – or a complete lack thereof – are cited as the main factors increasing the risk of overweight and obesity among teenagers and adults in Europe and throughout the world. The aim of this study was to assess the physical activity of physiotherapy students and to compare activity levels between the genders, between individuals who met and did not meet WHO recommendations, and across specific domains of physical activity.

The study involved 111 second-year physiotherapy students at the Medical University of Lodz, comprising 75 women and 36 men, aged between 19 and 25. The long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to assess the physical activity of the participants. The study was conducted during the summer semester of the 2024/2025 academic year.

The majority of participants (94,59%) were classified as having a high level of physical activity, whilst no student was classified as having an insufficient level. The total IPAQ score among women was 9060,16±6547,06 (MET-min/week), whilst for men it was 8569,64±5770,5 (MET-min/week). The highest average score across the categories was 3594,96±4433,98 (MET-min/week) and was associated with work-related activity, whilst the lowest average score related to domestic work and amounted to 1427,21±1217,55 (MET-min/week). Women had higher average scores for transport and leisure-time activity, whilst men had higher scores for work and domestic activities. Physically active male and female students achieved a higher total score than those who were physically inactive.

The second-year physiotherapy students taking part in the study were predominantly characterized by a high level of physical activity according to the IPAQ criteria.

The gut microbiota represents a potentially important component of athletic adaptation, functioning as a specialized metabolic organ that interacts with host physiology through the gut-muscle axis. This review aims to analyze the role of the gut microbiota in modulating physical performance and post-exercise recovery in athletes, with particular emphasis on microbial metabolites and diet-dependent mechanisms. A narrative literature review was conducted based on studies indexed
in PubMed and Scopus (2013–2026). The analysis included experimental, clinical and animal studies focusing on gut microbiota composition, short-chain fatty acids
(SCFAs), exercise physiology and sports nutrition. The unique microbial ecosystem of athletes may contribute to physical performance through the production
of SCFAs, such as acetate and propionate, which can influence skeletal muscle metabolism via AMPK and GLUT4 signalling pathways. Animal studies suggest that intestinal microbes are important for maintaining skeletal muscle mass, neuromuscular integrity and exercise capacity. Additionally, the gut microbiota may contribute to post-exercise recovery by enhancing intestinal barrier function, modulating immune responses and reducing oxidative stress and systemic inflammation. These effects are strongly influenced by dietary composition, particularly the balance between protein and fibre intake, which determines microbial homeostasis and metabolite production. Current evidence supports an association between gut microbiota, exercise performance and recovery, although direct causal evidence in athletes remains limited. Its modulation through targeted nutritional strategies and gut-training protocols represents a promising direction for personalized sports nutrition in competitive athletes.

The aim of this article is to assess the role of historic hotels in sustainable development, with particular attention to promotion and information challenges. The study, conducted in Kraków, comprised an analysis of source materials, a diagnostic survey among students, site visits to selected properties and interviews with industry representatives. The findings indicate low recognizability of hotels housed in heritage buildings and weak associations between their operations and the idea of sustainable development. Respondents were divided as to the extent of these establishments’ contribution to sustainability. However, the protection of cultural heritage was consistently underscored as a key component. To fully realize their potential, historic hotels should combine authenticity with modern solutions and develop coherent information and promotion strategies.

Inter-organizational learning (IOL) in urban policy is a process in which various actors – such as local, regional, and national authorities, EU institutions, universities, the private sector, and non-governmental organizations – collaborate and exchange knowledge and experiences to jointly address complex urban challenges. The goal is to transcend traditional, hierarchical governance structures and adopt a more integrated, partnership-based approach, based on the principle of multilevel governance and co-governance. The European Union plays a key role in this process, providing an appropriate political, financial and organizational framework. The aim of this article, based on selected case studies, is to identify the tangible benefits and challenges of knowledge exchange within EU urban policy.

This article addresses the issue of information management by the Polish government during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the research was to analyze the social perception of the government’s information policy, with particular emphasis on criteria such as transparency, credibility and reliability of the message. The research employed a diagnostic survey method using the CAWI technique, conducted between 2023 and 2025 with a group of 620 respondents. It should be noted that the sample is purposive and not representative of the general population; it is dominated by women (73%), young people aged 18–29 (68%) and respondents with higher education or currently studying. The research results indicate high social awareness within this group regarding pandemic threats. Respondents positively evaluated the transparency of communications and the organization of the National Vaccination Program. At the same time, a deep deficit of trust in the government as a source of information was recorded; nearly 65% of respondents considered the information policy inadequate, and 66% deemed it inconsistent. Criticism mainly concerned the politicization of the message and insufficient responsiveness to the dynamically changing epidemic situation.

This article examines the use of the history of the Royal Iron Foundry and art casting in Gliwice within academic curricula. The research was quasi-experimental in nature, involving pre- and post-tests. The theoretical section of the paper employs a literature review, whilst the empirical section combines a case study with mixed-methods research. The study was conducted in the first half of 2025 amongst 137 business students (logistics, management and production engineering), using questionnaires, knowledge tests, a motivation scale and classroom observation. The research hypothesis was that in higher education, business history is underutilized. The research revealed a high level of student interest in the history of Polish industry, particularly when presented using active teaching methods, as well as a lack of knowledge and a clear need to explore this topic further. The results indicate that integrating industrial history into contemporary higher education, particularly business teaching, motivates students and develops their ability to combine theoretical knowledge with practice. The case study of the Gliwice museum is a source of inspiration, knowledge and motivation for developing the technical knowledge and analytical and creative skills necessary in real-world managerial work.

The growing interest in functional foods and innovative food products has contributed to increasing attention being paid to edible flowers as ingredients used in gastronomy and food production. Despite their nutritional and health-promoting properties, the market success of edible flowers depends largely on panel-based acceptability, which is strongly influenced by sensory perception and visual quality attributes. The aim of this study is to evaluate the sensory quality and panel-based acceptability of selected edible flower species and to identify the sensory attributes associated with higher acceptability scores. The research material consisted of five edible flowers: acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia), pansy (Viola tricolor), elderflower (Sambucus nigra), white clover (Trifolium repens) and daisy (Bellis perennis). Sensory evaluation was conducted by a trained panel of ten assessors using a five-point scale. The assessment included overall acceptance, external appearance, colour intensity, taste characteristics, aroma attributes, texture parameters and overall palatability. The results demonstrated significant differences in panel-based acceptability among the flower species that were analyzed. Pansy, clover and daisy achieved the highest acceptability scores, while all the flowers received positive ratings for external appearance. The findings indicate that visual attractiveness and colour intensity were the most important factors associated with higher acceptability scores, whereas selected taste attributes played a less significant role in shaping acceptance. The study confirms that flowers characterized by attractive appearance and intense colour received higher acceptability scores from the trained sensory panel. These findings provide useful implications for producers and distributors, highlighting the importance of quality management practices aimed at preserving the visual quality of edible flowers throughout storage, packaging, and distribution processes.

The growing adoption of plant-based diets and the widespread use of protein supplements have increased the need for a comprehensive evaluation of commercial vegan protein powders and beverages prepared from them. In addition to nutritional composition, product quality depends on sensory performance, storage stability, moisture sorption behaviour and flow properties. This study aimed to compare three commercially available vegan protein powders and their reconstituted beverages with similar declared flavour profiles but different plant-protein compositions.

The study included a pea-rice-almond-hemp protein complex, a multicomponent plant-protein blend and a soy protein isolate. Beverages were prepared according to the manufacturers’ instructions and evaluated by 12 assessors trained in sensory analysis. Colour, odour, consistency, and taste were rated on a five-point scale and combined using predefined weighting coefficients. Moisture content and water activity of the powders were determined, and water-vapour sorption isotherms were obtained using the static desiccator method at 25°C over a water-activity range of 0.07–0.92. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) model was used to estimate monolayer capacity and specific sorption surface area. Loose and tapped bulk density, Hausner ratio, Carr index, angle of repose and angle of slide were measured in powder samples, whereas CIE L*a*b* colour parameters were measured for powders and reconstituted beverages.

The soy protein isolate achieved the highest overall sensory score (4.58), whereas the most expensive multicomponent blend received the lowest score (2.77), mainly because of lower odour and taste ratings. All powders had low initial water activity (0.3142–0.3602), but their sigmoidal sorption isotherms indicated marked susceptibility to moisture uptake at higher water activity. BET monolayer capacity ranged from 4.58 to 4.65 g H2O/100 g dry matter. Hausner ratios of 1.36–1.48 and Carr indices of 26.40–32.33% indicated moderate-to-high cohesiveness and poor flowability. Instrumental colour analysis revealed clearly perceptible differences among the products both before and after reconstitution.

Product price was not a reliable indicator of sensory quality. A multidimensional assessment is required because plant-protein composition simultaneously affects sensory acceptance of beverages, moisture-related storage stability and powder handling performance.

Artificial intelligence is gaining prominence not only as an operational optimization tool, but primarily as a key element shaping decision-making processes and strategic management within organizations. The public and academic debate is dominated by concerns regarding job losses, privacy violations, social manipulation and biases hidden in algorithms. The purpose of this review paper is to transpose these issues into the realm of corporate management and examine a significantly less obvious threat: algorithmic isomorphism. This entails the homogenization of business strategies resulting from widespread reliance on the same global machine learning models. The article analyzes how the imperfections of artificial intelligence systems such as the lack of transparency (the black box effect), inherent database bias and their Western-centric nature can lead to the reproduction of identical market behaviour patterns. Furthermore, the impact of these technologies on the risk of unique know-how leakage and the loss of tacit knowledge held by human managers, which is crucial for competitive advantage, is discussed. The comprehensive analysis also encompasses the transfer of market mechanisms, known from algorithmic financial crises, to the sphere of long-term business decision-making. The conclusions point to the necessity of balancing technological innovation with a human-centric approach to protect corporate identity.

Micronutrient deficiencies can coexist with adequate or excessive energy intake and remain a major public-health problem. Edible insects have therefore been proposed not only as alternative protein sources, but also as ingredients capable of increasing the density of iron, zinc, vitamin B12 and other nutrients in staple foods. This structured narrative review critically evaluates that suggestion. PubMed and Google Scholar were searched up to and including July 2026, supplemented by backward citation searching and current European Union (EU) legal and risk-assessment documents. Evidence was prioritized from human intervention and stable-isotope studies through systematic reviews, validated compositional analyses, food-formulation studies and authoritative assessments. The literature confirms substantial nutrient density in many edible species, but direct comparisons are complicated by differences in species, developmental stage, feed, processing, analytical method and whether results are expressed on a fresh- or dry-matter basis. Total nutrient content also does not establish nutritional efficacy. Human evidence is nutrient-specific: iron absorption from the house cricket (Acheta domesticus) was low in a stable-isotope trial, whereas a 2025 trial in Kenyan preschool children showed that cricket-enriched maize meals delivered well-absorbed zinc. Vitamin B12 concentrations are highly variable, and some insect products contain inactive corrinoid analogues, creating a risk of overestimating physiologically active B12. Food enrichment with insect powders generally increases protein and selected mineral contents, but higher inclusion levels may impair texture, colour, flavour and acceptance. Safety depends on controlled rearing substrates, hygienic processing, heat treatment, management of spore-forming microorganisms and chemical contaminants, and allergen labelling, particularly for consumers allergic to crustaceans or house-dust mites. In the EU, authorized preparations derive from four insect species and are regulated as product-specific novel foods. Edible insects should therefore be regarded as a potentially useful component of diversified, culturally adapted micronutrient strategies, not as a universal remedy for hidden hunger. Future research should quantify active nutrient forms, absorption, long-term clinical outcomes, affordability and real-world acceptability in target populations.

This paper presents a historical overview of Polish initiatives and activities undertaken to familiarize children and young people with basic health and health protection issues. The aim of this study is to trace previous legal and organizational solutions that determine the place and nature of broadly defined health education in Polish schools across various historical periods and political systems. It is worth noting that these solutions have a long tradition in Polish education, dating back to the Enlightenment, and continued by educational authorities in subsequent decades and changing social circumstances and political systems. The article provides a historical context for the ongoing, controversial discussion regarding the place, role and validity of introducing health education as a subject into modern schools.

In an era of ostensibly unrestricted digital openness and cultural inclusivity, access to documentary films on art in Poland remains significantly constrained – not only for technological or sensory reasons, but above all due to educational and economic barriers. The aim of this article is to examine the contradiction between the rhetoric of accessibility and the actual accessibility of Polish documentary films devoted to art and artists.

The study addresses the following research questions. How do cultural institutions and film producers in Poland conceptualize and communicate the economic accessibility of films about art? What are the actual mechanisms that limit access to such content, including pricing policies, licensing restrictions, geographical availability and forms of digital exclusion? Does an alternative, grassroots infrastructure of access to Polish art documentaries exist, and if so, in what ways does it operate? Finally, how might the concept of accessibility be redefined within the broader framework of the political economy of culture? To address these questions, the study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining an analysis of scholarly discourse on the subject with survey-based empirical research.