Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe / Krakow International Studies

The following paper delves into the legal problems of the East Asian territorial disputes around islands located in the Japan Sea and the South China Sea (Takeshima/Dokdo, Senkaku Islands, Paracel Islands, and Spratly Islands). It discusses the content of the legal claims raised by every part of the disputes and critically assesses its validity under public international law. The paper concludes that the widely accepted legal mechanisms of settling territorial disputes rely on the UN Charter provisions of good faith and by peaceful means. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea does not fully regulate the issue of concurrent claims regarding maritime areas. What is more, the recent political developments that took place in the third decade of the 21st century allow us to assume that contemporary, Western-centric international law would not be effective in the resolution of these territorial disputes.

Russian invasion of Ukraine might look like purely military act, however that was already the result of long years of information, cultural and scientific war. These aspects are the elements of broader term ‘sharp power’ – a ‘soft power’ that is being exploited by authoritarian states like Russia and China. This mental occupation of Ukraine has been carefully planned by the Russian state, which has been keeping Ukraine from development of its civil society, political system, cultural elites, national memory and many more. Nevertheless, despite all the skepticism, Ukrainian people are fighting for their state and territory the third year, which proves the existence of Ukrainian nation and its maturity.

The aim of the article is to discuss Germany’s position on the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, starting from the annexation of Crimea in 2014 to the outbreak of a full-scale conflict in 2022. After the introductory remarks, the attitude of Germany towards Russia after the end of the Cold War and its evolution are outlined. The author focused in particular on groundbreaking events in the context of the security of Central and Eastern Europe, such as the Orange Revolution in 2004, the NATO summit in Bucharest, and the Russian-Georgian war in 2008. Further on, the German position on the annexation of Crimea in 2014 – both by the federal government and the main political parties, followed by German reactions to the entry of Russian troops into Ukraine in February 2022 and the announcement of a breakthrough in German foreign and security policy (Zeitenwende). An attempt was made to analyze the meaning of the term Zeitenwende on the military, economic and political level. In the final conclusions, an attempt was made to compare German and Polish public opinion towards the Russian-Ukrainian conflict.

Russia’s aggression against Ukraine also had a significant impact on the Czech Republic. It was mainly visible in three dimensions: political, economic and social. The Czech authorities and society firmly took the side of the Ukrainian state and its citizens. A consequence of this was the political and military support and assistance provided by Czech society to Ukrainian refugees arriving in the Czech Republic. One consequence of the war was also temporary economic problems, caused by the Republic’s dependence on Russian raw materials. The election of a new head of state in January 2023 certainly did not change Czech attitudes towards the conflict and its victims.

The European debate on strengthening defence capabilities has intensified in response to changes in the international environment caused by the geopolitical rivalry between the US and China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. This forces the European Union to define its future place in this geopolitical game of powers. Questions about the direction of further development and strengthening of the EU’s autonomous defence capabilities remain valid in the context of the expected withdrawal of the United States from the European continent in favour of Asia and the Pacific. Another controversial issue is increasing the EU’s defence potential, while at the same time obliging the EU member states belonging to NATO to fulfil their alliance commitments. The EU has been trying to develop the Common Security and Defence Policy for years, but despite the actions taken so far, the military dimension is still very limited.

Digitalization has been profoundly affecting every aspect of life for the last three decades including international relations. This study investigates the transformative effects of digitalization on both the discipline of International Relations (IR) and the practice of IR. Digitalization has driven significant transformations across various domains, including from conflict to peace, from diplomacy to security and from human rights to the environment. This study seeks to answer the question of how digitalization has reshaped traditional paradigm of international relations? Adopting a qualitative research methodology, including a comprehensive literature review, also incorporates the Constructivist IR theory, which emphasizes the changes in actor behaviors occur as norms evolve. The finding reveals a dual impact: While cyber-attacks, especially on critical infrastructures pose threats to national and international security, cyber diplomacy enhances environmental protection and cooperation among global actors. This duality clearly demonstrates how complex and complicated the relationship is between the challenges and opportunities brought about by the digital age in international relations.

The Confucius Institute of Canada, which officially promotes Chinese language and culture, is raising growing concerns over its suspected role in spreading Chinese propaganda and restricting academic freedom by using financial issues to enforce selfcensorship. In addition, there are concerns that the institute’s activities may be used for intelligence purposes, especially in the context of research into strategically important technologies, as reported by Canadian intelligence. Canadian authorities are taking steps to limit the Confucius Institute’s influence, with new regulations on academic cooperation limiting financial support for research projects affiliated with the institute. Nevertheless, the institute continues to operate, suggesting the need for further, firmer steps at the federal and provincial levels to protect Canada’s national interests.